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Sustainable Development Update Issue 6, Volume 5, 2005 The Sustainable Development Update (SDU) focuses on the links between ecology, society and the economy. It is produced by Albaeco, an independent non-profit organisation. SDU is produced with support from Sida, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Environment Policy Division. Dr. Fredrik Moberg, Editor Click the miniature below to download in pdf-format: 
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| Editorial | ||||
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I like people that are both brave and optimistic. Bill Bryson is one of them. He has written a popular science book called “A Short History of Almost Everything”. As the title suggests Bryson bravely investigates an enormous diversity of topics, from the origins of the universe to the evolution of human beings and almost everything in between. Even if you’re not into science at all this book is a great introduction to science in general and the history of our planet in particular. It is in essence your guide to everything you ever wanted to know about the planet, but were afraid to ask. One overarching theme in the book is the complexity and unpredictability of the universe, the planet and natural ecosystems. Considering all the possible uncontrollable disasters (e.g. asteroids colliding with the earth and superheated magma chambers erupting in your back yard) Bryson concludes that it is truly miraculous, not to say extremely unlikely, that we exist at all on this complex, unreliable and fragile planet. Bryson’s book is also a great expose into the mistakes, personalities and peculiarities of famous scientists as Newton and Darwin. Obviously, even big brains like that produced a number of silly ideas and were by no means infallible. Take, Einstein, for instance. He didn’t learn to speak until the age of three and failed his college entrance exams on the first try. So, Bryson shows us to be humble both when it comes to science and the planet. Bryson recently answered questions from the readers of UK’s ”The Guardian”, who among many other things wondered if he believed that science would be able to save the planet? ”It’s hard not to be kind of pessimistic about human beings generally, because we do tend to mess things up… and I don’t think we’re doing a very good job of looking after the planet now. But … I also do think that human beings often do wonderful, correct, brilliant things. So, on balance, I’d like to be optimistic about the future.” This brings me to Montreal, Canada, and a creeping disaster we actually might be able to control. Is the glass half full or half empty after the recent climate talks? Or are people only pleased because they had low expectations and are pretty happy finding that the glass still contains a few welcome drops after the meeting? Many have indeed been optimistic, stating that Kyoto is alive and that a legally binding global framework after 2012 is now achievable. Could have hoped for some more braveness though. /Dr. Fredrik Moberg, Editor | ||||
| SDU - Feature | ||||
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Poor women key to environmentally sustainable development Women are in general the principal users of natural resources in poor rural regions, and often possess major ecological knowledge and cooperation skills. Still poor women tend to remain under-represented in public decision-making over natural resources. But the links between gender issues, poverty alleviation and the environment are gaining increased international recognition.  The environment is a very important factor in the health and well-being of children and their mothers in poor rural regions. Photo: Jerker Lokrantz /azote.se The world’s poor women play a crucial role in management and conservation of natural resources. In Cambodia, for example, women account for 65 percent of agricultural labour and 75 percent of fisheries production. Consequently, poverty reduction strategies can not succeed without dealing with the roles and needs of women, which comprise almost 70% of the 1.3 billion people living in poverty. Excluded from decision-making Moreover, women’s responsibility for provision of household resources such as water and fuel wood render women both more dependent on common property natural resources and more vulnerable to environmental degradation. Sustainable development is simply not possible without ensuring women access to land and other resources, education and safe and equal employment. Even though essentially all international conferences and conventions dealing with sustainable development in the last two decades or so have stated the importance of gender issues, it is still too common that male dominated power structures exclude women from decision making over natural resources and the environment. In southern Africa, for example, ownership and control of land and water is extremely inequitable even though women provide about 80 per cent of the work in agriculture.
Women and biodiversity Around 75% of the world’s poor people live in rural areas and depend very directly on local natural resources for food, fuel, medicines, shelter, transportation, income generation and risk management. This is especially true for poor rural women who tend to have the main responsibility for collection and production of food, fuel, medicines and raw materials. While women’s reliance on “wild income” is higher than men, the latter tend to have more education and greater income generating capacity. This pattern is also reflected in their ecological knowledge, women in Sierra Leone, for instance, could name 31 uses of trees in forests and on fallow land while men could only name eight. Moreover, most poor farmers around the world are women. These women are key to the maintenance of the genetic diversity of crops as they use and improve their own crop seeds. This is touched upon in the UN Convention on Biological Diversity from 1992, but many have since then identified a need to do much more to achieve full participation of women in decision-making and assure their access to ecosystem services and resources, and facilitate equal sharing of the benefits from the use of biodiversity. Biological diversity does not only provide resources as timber and fish and services as erosion control and pollination of crops, it also provides the genetic basis for food crops and wild varieties that increase the resistance to diseases. Moreover, species diversity is also important for ecosystems’ resilience, their capacity to cope with natural disturbance and human-induced environmental change. Women build social capital Gender analysis is increasingly recognised as crucial for developing better management of natural resources. Even though much more research is needed in this area, there are studies suggesting that women are in general more environmentally aware and more likely to be involved in environmental protection than men. A recent example is from the science journal World Development. Here three authors from Denmark, Colombia and UK show that women might be more effective at collective management of common property resources than men. Their study of 33 rural programs in 20 countries of Latin America, Africa, and Asia show that, in these settings, collaboration, solidarity, and conflict resolution all increase in groups where women are present. The authors suggest that these differences are due to the fact that women tend to build more “relational social capital” than men, that is, informal social relations and networks aiming at collaboration and conflict management that builds trust. This may in turn discourage stakeholders from resource use or management practices that affect others negatively.  Photo: Jerker Lokrantz /azote.se International gender issues In 2003 the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development decided that gender equality will be a cross-cutting issue in all forthcoming work up until 2015. Wangari Maathai’s Nobel Peace Prize is another sign that the links between gender issues, poverty alleviation and the environment are gaining increased international recognition. She is also part of The Network of Women Ministers for the Environment. Many have also highlighted that women seem to be highly effective agents of change, as proven by the many organisations initiated by women to develop sustainable alternatives and making sure that women’s voices are heard. But – and this bears repeating – women can of course not be seen as a homogenous group: nationality, social class, caste, race and education make huge differences. Even though this article has focused mainly on poor women living in rural areas it is increasingly important to focus attention on poor urban women as the mega cities grow in developing countries. Moreover, we must not forget to address also men from a gender perspective. It must be stressed over and over again that gender, as well as the environment, is a responsibility that must be shared equally by women and men. /Fredrik Moberg More information: http://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterOne.pdf http://www.gdrc.org/gender/gender-envi.html Westermann, O. and others. 2005. “Gender and Social Capital: The Importance of Gender Differences for the Maturity and Effectiveness of Natural Resource Management Groups”. World Development 33, No. 11 2005 | ||||
| SDU - Interview | ||||
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"Donations of too many small boats could put further pressure on fish resources after the tsunami in Sri Lanka"
Licensing of all fishermen and gear has not been carried out in the most desirable manner even before the tsunami. This was a good opportunity to begin licensing of all those who were getting new boats and equipment and also the remaining fishermen, craft and gear immediately after the tsunami. However, this is not the case now and many are operating without licenses. This is also one of the reasons that blast fishing and other forms of illegal fishing is being carried out. We have also missed the opportunity to establish a good coast guard or the ability for the fisheries inspectors to go out and check fishing gear and licenses. We still have no patrol crafts either for the coast guard or the fisheries inspectors. There was a good opportunity to request donors to provide this type of equipment for proper resource management as only proper management will provide food for all, not exploitation to the maximum. 2. What is the status of coral reefs in Sri Lanka today? The greatest damage to reefs was in the east coast. This is not surprising as they were faced the tsunami whilst other areas such as the south and southwest were less in the direct path of the tsunami. Damage was either direct impact or because the corals were not on a solid substrate. By this I mean that some reefs had corals growing on top of old dead branching corals (this substrate is not hard and consolidated and can be dislodged easily). We also saw that reefs which were severely damaged in the 1998 bleaching event were more vulnerable to the tsunami. 3. How important are reefs for the well-being of Sri Lanka? It is estimated to support about 10 – 15% of the demersal fishery. Much of the coastal fishery is either reef fish or reef associated fish. This is very important to local communities. Often the fish catches are estimated from main fishery harbours (main landing sites). But much of the coastal fishery is from small boats landing anywhere on the beach and this is largely unaccounted, so the estimates for reef fisheries is grossly underestimated. 4. Did coastal ecosystems protect land from the tsunami? There were areas that sustained heavy damage even where there were reefs and mangroves. But the damage is largely due to the direction of the water modified by the seabed, reef structures etc. and the coast. We should not compare it to the ability of reefs to protect the shore from storm surges and wind generated waves. In the case of a tsunami the water rises all of a sudden and goes very high above the reefs, so that way the reefs cannot provide much protection. Nevertheless, they do buffer to some extent up to the point where the water level reaches them after the withdrawal of the sea (the sea level drops before the tsunami). Thereafter the water keeps rising and going above the reefs. At that stage the reefs can provide little protection to the shore. If the reefs were not there, however, the damage could have been greater. /Fredrik Moberg More at: The 2005 Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) Status Report: http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/ | ||||
| Sustainability School | ||||
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The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the so-called ”four flexible mechanisms” of the Kyoto protocol. It allows developed countries to reach their emission targets through investment in emission reducing projects in developing countries, which would be offset against their obligations in the own countries. The Kyoto protocol was outlined in Kyoto 1997 in order to put the Climate Change Convention into operation. The Convention is United Nations agreement to stabilize greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level to prevent dangerous climate change. It was agreed at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio 1992. The most important part of the Kyoto Protocol is its legally binding commitments for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions at least 5 per cent to a level of 1990 during the period 2008-2012. The "Flexible Mechanisms" Besides CDM the Flexible mechanisms are: Bubble policy, Emission trading and Joint Implementation (JI). While Bubble policy and Emission trading allow developed countries to trade their emission quotas, CDM and JI are project-based and designed to make it easier and cheaper for industrialised countries to reach their emission targets. CDM is the only flexible mechanism that involves developing countries. Joint Implementation projects can be initiated by developed countries and countries with economies in transition to jointly reduce greenhouse gas emissions in one country and then share the emission reductions generated. The Clean Development Mechanism allows developed countries to achieve parts of their reduction obligations through projects that reduce emission of greenhouse gases in a developing country.  CDM allows rich countries to reach their emission targets by investing in projects in developing countries. Good or bad? Although developing countries have no obligations to reduce their greenhouse emissions they can, on a voluntary basis, contribute by hosting projects under the Clean Development Mechanism. The main two keys of the Clean Development Mechanism are to assist developing countries to achieve sustainable development and to provide tools to developed countries to achieve their greenhouse gas-reduction obligations. Current CDM-projects can for example be found at the Finnish CDM/JI Pilot Programme, which e.g. involves the development of a Mini-hydro Electricity Power Station in Zambia and Biomass Power Plants in India. The CDM is, however, often criticised. For instance, it doesn’t consider carbon debts for old forests destruction, but only carbon credits for planting new forests. Moreover, the CDM has also been labelled ”environmental colonialism”. That is, it allows rich nations to buy large quantities of cheap emission reductions in developing countries, leaving these poor nations with only expensive options when they eventually become obliged to reduce their own emissions. /Ilari Ohring Further reading: http://cdm.unfccc.int/ | ||||
| Enviro-myths | ||||
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"Commonly owned natural resources are doomed" At the end of the 1960s, Garrett Hardin coined the famous term “Tragedy of the Commons”. Since then, however, many researchers and practical examples have shown that sustainable use of the world’s commons is possible. Hardin published his groundbreaking theory in 1968, which clearly and pessimistically described how population growth threatened natural resources. It was illustrated with the following example: A grazing pasture is open for all to use. Each herder wants to have as many heads of cattle as possible. This works until the pasture’s carrying capacity is exceeded. At this point a herder considers adding one head of cattle. This will increase his/her herd but will have a negative effect for the pasture. Because the negative effect of the pasture’s reduced “health” on the herd’s well-being will be so small compared to the profit of an additional head of cattle, the herder will procure another animal. The remaining herders will come to reason in the same way and the pasture will be over-exploited. Hardin’s solution to the “Tragedy of the Commons” was to control population growth and to instigate property – through privatisation or nationalisation. Revisiting the commons Many researchers have reviewed Hardin’s conclusions using experience gathered over 35 years of research. Elinor Ostrom from the USA is among the most famous of these. She criticises politicians and academics that have unconditionally accepted Hardin’s theories and used these as an excuse for privatising and nationalising property around the world. Hardin also claimed that researcher’s chances of influencing the commons’ fate were limited. Ostrom, however, says it is difficult, but not impossible. It requires changing an old worldview based on the assumption that Earth’s resources are infinite, and developing co-operation and trust over large areas and between cultures. Her research indicates that researchers have played, and will continue to play, an important part in the process towards sustainable use of the world’s commons. Another american professor, Margaret McKean, has found a series of criteria shared by successful commons in both developed and developing countries: 1) Clear definition of user rights; 2) stakeholders meet regularly to discuss the commons and solve eventual issues; 3) use is regulated by a comprehensive and non- governmental organ; 4) the system is organised in a way that it is not affected by social and economic differences; and 5) policing and maintenance of the common works well. It is easier to manage a common that is shared by a homogenous group of people than a large common extending over national borders. Managing the international commons demands close co-operation between governments, companies and private individuals at international, regional and local level. Commons whose resources are hard to quantify or move, such as fish in the oceans, are particularly problematic to manage. /Jacob von Heland and Miriam Huitric Source: ”The Tragedy of the Commons” Hardin, G. 1968. Science, 162: 1243-1248 “Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges” Ostrom and others. 1999. Science 284: 278-282 | ||||
| In Brief | ||||
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Human Health Threatened by Ecosystem Degradation
– Human health is strongly linked to the health of ecosystems, which meet many of our most critical needs, says Maria Neira, Director of WHO’s Department for the Protection of the Human Environment. Health risks are no longer merely a result of localised exposures to ”traditional” forms of pollution – although these still certainly exist. The broader pressures on ecosystems, from depletion and degradation of freshwater resources to the impacts of global climate change on natural disasters and agricultural production, now lead to health effects. Just as the more traditional risks, the harmful effects of the degradation of ecosystem services are being borne disproportionately by the poor. However, unlike these more traditional hazards, the potential for unpleasant surprises, such as emergence and spread of new infectious diseases, is much greater. Malnutrition and lack of safe water There are many fundamental linkages between ecosystem change and human health, but they are often complex, indirect and displaced in space and time. One example is climate change that puts stress on agricultural production, coral reefs and the coastal fisheries. This may in turn contribute to malnutrition which accounts for nearly 10% of the global burden of disease. Likewise, deforestation may alter infectious disease patterns, for example by affecting vectors (e.g. mosquitoes) distributions over time. Along with malnutrition, lack of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, and the dependency on solid fuel leading to indoor pollution are the most serious threats to human health. /Louise Hård af Segerstad More at: http://www.MAweb.org New possibility to overcome malnutrition? You thought life was ironic? Well, rice can be too and this is not even a bad thing as recently shown by scientists from the Philippines and the US. Their study reveals that improvements in the iron content of rice through plant breeding could be a major step forward in the battle against iron deficiency, one of the developing world’s greatest health problems affecting up to 3.5 billion people. Selective breeding of staple food crops to increase their nutritional value (a process called biofortification) is not a new phenomenon. A recent report by Haas and colleagues is, however, the first one to show that feeding of those biofortified plants could be a viable alternative to other conventional approaches to fight undernourishment. It is said to be the first human study that results in a measurable improvement in nutritional status.  Can iron-enriched rice help to overcome malnutrition? Photo: Jerker Lokrantz /azote.se Today many of the strategies employed to tackle malnutrition in developing countries have limitations that influence their effectiveness and long-term sustainability. Food supplements such as pills, tonics and capsules are for example often too costly and do not reach the less privileged. The new study is based on rice bred to contain elevated levels of iron. The results are especially important for developing countries where the lack of iron can have tremendous damaging effects on the population. Estimations state that iron deficiency causes the death of up to 600,000 women during pregnancy or when giving birth each year. It is furthermore the source of anemia, which slows down physical and mental development of children and causes chronic fatigue in adults. The diets of 192 Catholic religious sisters in 10 convents were monitored. One group was given rice that contained elevated iron levels while the other group received traditional rice. After 9 months, women that had obtained enriched rice had significantly higher levels of total body iron in their blood than the control group. The greatest effect could be seen in women that had initially poor iron status, indicating that iron deficiency can be overcome or at least reduced by provision of the biofortified rice. No magic bullet Though these results are very promising, and the proposed breeding strategies might indeed improve the diets of the poor, more research will be required to evaluate and improve their effectiveness. It will moreover be necessary to look at how well the rice is accepted by the general population. Critics say the iron-biofortified crops might not be helpful at all to the malnourished, who need it most desperately, as the human body requires adequate amount of fats to absorb these nutrients. So, iron-enriched rice in isolation might not help. It must only be seen as a complement to other strategies to decrease malnutrition. /Nadja Neumann More at: http://www.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/135/12/2823 http://www.harvestplus.org Khao Lak after the tsunami – as vulnerable as before The post-tsunami rebuilding in Khao Lak on Thailand’s west coast seems to result in a community that is as vulnerable to natural disasters as before the tsunami, says Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI). “Out of the devastation caused by the tsunami a unique opportunity has arisen to address the underlying causes of vulnerability to such extreme events and to approach the region’s recovery in an ecologically and socially sustainable way”, argued Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) in a SDU-feature article last January. Now, a year after the devastating tsunami, it is time for reflection. Have the underlying causes been addressed properly and has the recovery been approached in a sustainable way? Not in Khao Lak at least, according to a new study by SEI.
Slow recovery process The tourism community of Khao Lak, on the Andaman Coast of Thailand, was devastated by the tsunami last year. Today Khao Lak remains a destination in crisis. The recovery and reconstruction is slow, only 30 percent of the hotels have been rebuilt, the evacuation roads system remains unfinished, stabilising plantations have not been made as planned, and only two weeks ago the Tsunami Early Warning System tower was installed. Moreover, unemployment and debt levels are still high, investment confidence is very low and, as a consequence, economic growth is non-existent. - After the tsunami the need for a sustainable recovery of Khao Lak, and the whole region hit by the tsunami, was highlighted by us and many others. Unfortunately, this has not been realised in Khao Lak. The houses are rebuilt in practically the same way as before. No sewage treatment is installed, instead the new hotels are, as the previous ones, equipped with septic tanks - which burst during the tsunami and caused severe infections. We have to start building our societies in a way that make them less vulnerable to natural disasters, says Johan Rockström, Director of Stockholm Environment Institute. /Ellika Hermansson Török More at: http://www.sei.se/SEI_Calgaro_Khao_Lak_Report_Dec_2005.pdf New welfare index: many of the poorest countries are on an unsustainable path A “new” green welfare index going beyond the traditional gross domestic product (GDP) shows that resource depletion are draining the net “savings” of many of the poorest countries. The new measure, called wealth, includes produced capital, natural resources, and the value of human skills and capabilities. It shows that net “savings” per person are negative in the world’s poorest countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This is reported in a new World Bank study entitled Where is the Wealth of Nations? “Current indicators used to guide development decisions - national accounts figures, such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - ignore depletion of resources and damage to the environment,” the World Bank says in a statement. Switzerland is topping the new report’s list with wealth per capita of $648,241, Sweden is third on the list, whereas Ethiopia is at the bottom with $1,965. Mauritania is one of the bright spots, according to the World Bank, as the country has improved its development prospects through better management of fishery resources. The study says the value of natural capital (minerals, energy, forests, pastureland, cropland and protected areas) is 26 percent of total wealth in low-income countries, whereas produced capital (machinery, structures and urban land) is only 16 percent. http://www.worldbank.org/ Global warming might interrupt natural insect pest control Pest outbreaks might become more frequent and severe as the planet warms, due to altered interactions between insect pests and their natural enemies. This is concluded in a new study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The team of researchers investigated the impact of parasitoids (such as wasps and flies) on more than 5,000 plant-eating caterpillar species in forests from central Brazil to southern Canada. The parasitoid insects lay their eggs on or inside the caterpillars so that their hatched larvae can later feed on the host. Without these natural enemies farmers would have to spray more pesticides, especially in the tropics where such parasitoids consitute important natural pest control for many crops. Global warming is expected to make rainfall more varied and unpredictable and this is predicted to cause problems for the parasitoids that use the start of the rains to track the short period of time when their caterpillar hosts are most vulnerable. The team found that the caterpillars had significantly fewer parasitoids in years when rainfall was most variable. Plant-eating caterpillar numbers are, however, not only controlled by parasitoids. Predators, diseases and fungal pathogens are also important, and these might all be affected differently by climate change. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0508839102v1 The quote: "The global economy is now so large that society can no longer safely pretend it operates within a limitless ecosystem. Developing an economy that can be sustained within the finite biosphere requires new ways of thinking" Herman E. Daly, in the September issue 2005 of American Scientist. Daly is former senior economist in the environment department of the World Bank. |
